The Red Book of Uzbekistan (2003) is a permanent publication which, by regulation, must be reviewed at least once in 10 years. In this new edition 53 bird species are included, among them 19 birds of prey.

Following IUCN classification applied at national level, one species, Bonnelli’s Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus) is Critically Endangered in the republic. One species - Pallas’s Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus) - is Endangered. Eleven species are defined as Vulnerable. Among them, eight species are defined as naturally rare: the Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), White-tailed Sea Eagle (Haliaaetus albicilla), Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), Himalayan Griffon Vulture (Gyps himalayensis), Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) and Barbary Falcon (Falco pelegrinoides) with criteria D 1 and 2. Three species are defined as declined: these are the Short-toed Eagle (Circaetus gallicus) (A2abc; D1), Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) (A2abc;C1) and Booted Eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) (A2abcd; B1+2a (ii,iii, v); C1). Six other species are designated as Near Threatened (NT): the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus), Cinereous or Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus), Pallid Harrier (Circus macrourus), Tawny (Steppe) Eagle (Aquila rapax), Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) and Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug).

The assessment has shown that only old historical data are available for many species, only partial new information was given for others, and only a third group (commercial species) is relatively well known. The establishment of a threatened species monitoring system is still current.

Wildlife rehabilitation in Slovakia has a quite long tradition. The first rehabilitation centre was established in 1985 by the Ministry of Environment. Since that year many more were opened but only 20 survived up to now. Most of them are funded by government and are under the 'State Nature Conservancy'. There are 13 small, first aid centres and 7 bigger ones. Some rehabilitaters working here are also members of the Working Group on Research and Protection of Birds of Prey and Owls.

In five years, 1996-2000, we rehabilitated 1144 individuals. Most of them were birds of prey (67% - mainly Falco tinnunculus and Buteo buteo) then owls (14% - mainly Strix aluco and Asio otus), other bird species (18% - mainly Ciconia ciconia and Cygnus olor) and mammals (1%). We released 44% of them back to the wild.

The biggest problems in wildlife rehabilitation in Slovakia are permanently handicapped birds, because we don't have any centre to care for them, and lack of any breeding centre for threatened species. We need to build a new National Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre that will cover all aspects of wildlife rehabilitation and handle injured animals from the whole country.

Within the framework of a study led by the SAPRR (Société des Autoroutes Paris Rhin Rhône) together with the society La Choue (for the study and the protection of Owls in Burgundy), between 1992 and 2001 and over more than 300 km, 9,427 animals were classified as victims of motorway traffic and among these 4,307 birds.677 birds of prey (11 species) and 2,667 owls (5 species) were determined. The number of individuals within a species varied between 1 and 1,731, essentially according to the nearby abundance of different species and their diets.

The five most represented species: Tyto alba, Asio otus, Buteo buteo, Strix aluco and Falco tinnunculus were studied according to the factors influencing mortality, such as the biotope, the road elevation and the abundance of voles. Measures aimed at reducing or compensating this mortality have been locally tested: treating the margins along the motorway and helping to increase breeding in more favourable areas. These are really effective for the Barn Owl, which is the most endangered species. It is planned to give major priority to these measures in the future.

Forests are the preferred breeding habitat for several raptor species, including Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus and Imeperial Eagle Aquila heliaca. Recent research on these two species showed that for nesting always single trees older (>80 years) and taller than others were selected. Such trees are rare and this may explain the relatively low occupancy rate of these raptors in otherwise suitable habitats. Current forestry practices maximize timber production with complete disregard for wildlife. Such practices favour a short production cycle, where big trees that may otherwise serve as potential nest sites are felled because they are no longer productive.

Additionally, forestry activities during the critical periods of nest-building and incubation may cause nest desertion, as has been documented for both species. We organized workshops to find solutions together with forest managers and planners. A shift from late spring to early fall in timing of potentially harmful activities like tree-marking and logging would minimize on-site disturbance. Preparation of guidelines for forest managers and workers, banning the felling of potential nest trees, and restricting human activities around active nests during the breeding season, were accepted by all parties. Incorporating needs of wildlife into forest management plans is a necessity.

2. Department of Biology, Anadolu University, Eskiflehir, Turkey

Together with Spain, France is one of the most important countries for birds of prey in Western Europe. A large scale survey concerning all the 23 diurnal raptor species breeding in France has been conducted over three years between 2000 and 2002 using regular spatial sampling. The survey consisted in exhaustive counts of breeding pairs of all raptors in 25 sq km centred within each 1/25 000 IGN map (ca.160 sq km). More than 1210 sample units (out of 1900 in total) were censused during the survey. We show several spatial statistical methods to infer distribution maps and evaluate abundances over the complete territory (interpolation, krigging, universal krigging). Our results underline the weakness of previous assessments since the current results are considerably larger (two to five times) for almost every species. We present general preliminary results and focus on single species exhibiting interesting patterns. Finally we propose some cues for sampling raptor populations, at low cost, on a nation-wide scale.

Stresemann and Stresemann in 1966 described the wave moult for the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo). However, this has since been largely ignored. Primaries of Accipitrid raptors are replaced from P1 (inner) sequentially outward. Waves are formed when not all ten primaries are replaced in any annual moult cycle, as the next moult begins anew at P1, as well as continuing with the next feather from where it left off in the last cycle. As many as three wave fronts of new primaries can be seen in some raptors, especially larger ones, e.g. eagles. Knowledge of wave moult can ascertain the ages of immature raptors in those species that take three or four years to attain adult plumage, since these species typically do not replace all the primaries in any one moult cycle. Juvenile eagles show all primaries the same age. Second plumage eagles show two ages of primaries, newer inner and older retained juvenile outer ones. Third plumage eagles show two waves, with the first wave proceeding to P8 to P10, and the second to P3 to P6. Fourth plumage eagles usually show new outer P10 from the first wave, new P5 to P7 from the second wave, and new P1 to P3 from the most recent wave. Fifth plumage eagles are essentially in adult plumage. I have verified wave moult in 39 species, mostly eagles, but also many buzzards.

Many species of raptors and owls are seriously under-represented in museum research collections around the world. In particular this applies to anatomical collections (skeletons and spirit specimens), where a global holding of less than ten specimens for a given species is a commonly encountered statistic. Thus, recent NHM studies refining the taxonomic status of certain large eagles (Parry et al 2002, Ibis, 144: 665-675) and vultures (Rasmussen & Parry 2001, Vulture News, 44: 18-21), both with important conservation implications, were made problematic by the lack of adequate skeletal material.

Researchers with access to such material are strongly urged to consider offering it to an appropriate museum, such as the NHM (contact email jhc@nhm.ac.uk), where it can be made available for future study.

Dr. Joanne H. Cooper, Curator, Bird Group, The Natural History Museum, Akeman Street, Tring, Herts, HP23 6AP

Kleptoparasitism between raptor species may determine raptor occurrence but there are few data on kleptoparasitism rates. Sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), Merlins (Falco columbarius), Peregrines (F. peregrinus) and Kestrels (F. tinnunculus) were observed catching 181 birds on a Scottish estuary. Other raptors and Carrion Crows attempted to steal the prey on 11% and 28% of the occasions respectively, resulting in a rate of prey loss due to kleptoparasitism by raptors of 1% and by Crows of 15%: non-raptors kleptoparasitised raptors significantly more frequently and more successfully than other raptors. Sparrowhawks were kleptoparasitised most frequently (25.6% of prey captures by non-raptors, 2.2% by raptors), Peregrines less so (14.2% non-raptors, 0% raptors) and Merlins the least (1.6% non-raptors, 0% raptors). The proportion of raptor-raptor interactions that were kleptoparasitism attempts was similar between species at about 20%, but Merlins and Sparrowhawks spent proportionately more time in aggressive interactions as they mobbed Peregrines. Peregrines occasionally apparently hunted Sparrowhawks, Merlins and

Kestrels; Sparrowhawks occasionally apparently hunted other Sparrowhawks, Merlins and Kestrels: no kills were seen during 21 apparent raptor-raptor hunts. Foraging gain through raptor-raptor kleptoparasitism and/or hunting appears relatively unimportant relative to typical hunting and kleptoparasitism loss from non-raptors.

Although there are five recognized raptor migration watchsites in Romania, data from these are based on sporadic count efforts. At least one of the watchsites, Dobrogea, in southeastern Romania between the Danube and the Black Sea coast, lies along a major migration corridor for northern European and western Asian migrants. Recent counts made by volunteers and staff of the Milvus Group suggested that migration might be more substantial than presumed. In 2002 we conducted a two-month migration count in this region at Macin. Hourly records include weather conditions and numbers of migrants. 10,663 birds of 26 species were recorded, including 9 complete and 17 partial migrants. Four threatened species migrated at the site: Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca, Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga, White-tailed Sea Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla and Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus. The flagship species of the site is the Steppe Buzzard Buteo b. vulpinus (5463 individuals, 2483-max. 1-day count on 8 Oct.). In this paper we present the results of the counts made in September-October 2002 and conclusions based on the analysis of these data.

During the BirdLife Belarus project, funded by RSPB, and expeditions of the National Academy of Science of Belarus in 1998-2002 counts of all species of diurnal raptors were conducted. The method used was observation in study areas with the help of optics from a series of points and subsequent mapping of the hunting and presumed nesting ranges of birds of prey (Dombrovski 1998). The total investigated area was about 8000 sq.km.

Extrapolation of the number of rare species was conducted separately for each of 25 geobotanic regions of Belarus, as well as counts. Estimated numbers of rare species: Pandion haliaetus - 130-180 pairs; Milvus milvus - 3-10; M. migrans - 200-230; Circus cyaneus - 600-800; Haliaeetus albicilla - 85-105; Circaetus gallicus - 530-700; Aquila pomarina - 3200-3800; A. clanga - 150-200; A. chrysaetos - 25-35; Hieraaetus pennatus - 10-15; Falco tinnunculus - 1200-1700; F. vespertinus - 10-30; F. columbarius - 300-350; F. subbuteo - 2500-2700; F. peregrinus - 0-3. Estimates of numbers for common species were made with use of density for main types of biotopes: Pernis apivorus - 8000-11000 pairs; Circus aeruginosus - 6000-9000; C. pygargus - 3000-5000; Accipiter nisus - 6500-8500; A. gentilis - 3500-5000; Buteo buteo - 18000-24000.

Thus the new estimates for Greater Spotted Eagle, Honey Buzzard, Common Buzzard and all Harrier species in Belarus are higher than previously (Nikiforov et al., 1997).

Different avian species have differing cholinesterase (che) activity, sometimes with great individual variability. Determination of normal levels of che activity in raptor species can be important in aiding the prognosis of intoxication by organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides. In our investigations, blood samples in heparin were taken from raptors in captivity in several zoological gardens in Israel, or from feral raptors undergoing rehabilitation at the raptor medical center at the Zoological Center Tel-Aviv – Ramat-Gan. Che activity were determined (Ellman et al., 1961), modified for use with a microplate reader (Hooper et al., 1989). The lowest enzyme activity was found in Griffon Vultures. Egyptian Vultures, Honey Buzzard, Steppe Eagle and Lesser Spotted Eagle showed higher activity. The highest che activity was in the owls (Eagle Owl, Barn Owl, Little Owl) and in Short toed Eagles.

In a zone of range overlap (Central Siberia) between Western (WMH, Circus aeruginosus and Eastern (EMH, C. spilonotus) Marsh Harriers very few (less than 2%) individuals are observed with any signs of hybrid origin in plumage colouration. However, we have found that hybridization does exist in at least some areas of Central Siberia with progeny of both sexes and perhaps some hybrids are fully fertile notwithstanding the long time since these two species diverged within a marsh harrier superspecies. We hypothesise that an important cause of hybrid rarity lies in an intermediate blend of the two species' migratory behaviour determined by the innate population-specific migrating programme. In autumn in Siberia WMH migrates south-westwards whereas EMH goes south-east. If migration direction is inherited similarly to plumage, then hybrids might fly southwards, taking an extremely arduous route across highland deserts and the Himalayas which could substantially reduce the survival of juveniles during their critical first year. Possibly such situations may also occur in other Siberian bird species with similar range overlaps. This supposition needs further study through migration research.

Khosrov Preserve (KP) is located in central Armenia and extends for about 30,000 hectares from 900 to 2400m above sea level. Its rocky landscape includes a wide range of habitat zones, from rich semideserts to subalpine areas, all densely traversed by rocky formations. Research carried out regularly between 1953 - 1976 and 1988 – 2002 has identified 19 diurnal raptor species (out of 28 in Armenia) and 5 (out of 7) species of owl breeding within the KP. Of these, the Black Vulture is classified as Globally Threatened (category A1), 18 species (including owls) are Birds of European Conservation Concern (categories B2, B3) and 9 are listed in the Red Data Book of Armenia (1987). As these data suggest, despite its small territory (about 1% of the country's area), KP contains approximately 68% of the diurnal raptor species that breed in Armenia, and 71% of breeding owl species. This high diversity is linked to an extremely wide diversity of breeding habitats, rich food resources and lower human impact -- a situation that contrasts with much of the rest of Armenia. KP is an important geographical link between diurnal and nocturnal raptor and owl populations within the Caucasian region.

The White-tailed Hawk (Buteo albicaudatus) is a poorly known species ranging from southern USA to northern Argentina. Few data are reported on its diet, mostly for the northern subspecies (hypospodius). The aim of this study was to perform a qualitative and quantitative diet analysis of the southern subspecies (B. a. albicaudatus), including seasonality. The study was carried out in Juiz de Fora municipality, Southeast Brazil. A sample of 259 pellets was collected from September 2000 to September 2001. Pellet analysis yielded 3,296 prey individuals, including 31 species/morphospecies. Invertebrates were numerically the most important prey (88.0%), mostly represented by Acrididae (71.6%). On the other hand, vertebrates (especially small rodents) were the bulk of the total estimated biomass consumption, yielding 76.6% (total of 7,196.5 g). Six orders not previously reported in the literature were found to be part of its diet (Chiroptera, Hymenoptera, Heteroptera, Odonata, Isoptera, Lepidoptera). Buteo albicaudatus showed seasonality in the consumption of five major groups of prey. Aranae and other arthropods were more consumed in the dry season, whereas Acrididae, Coleoptera and rodents were more captured in the wet season.

Information regarding the ecology of the White-tailed Hawk (Buteo albicaudatus) is scarce and largely descriptive. Especially with this raptor feeding ecology, da of prey and biomass received some attention, but prey selection remains unexamined. The diet was studied, based on the analysis of 259 pellets collected in Juiz de Fora Municipality, Southeast Brazil, from September 2000 to September 2001. Simultaneously, abundance of small mammals was assessed in the area, totalling 2,160 pitfall trap-nights. Small mammals yielded 52.5 % of estimated biomass consumed by the hawks. Only five genera of small mammals were found in its diet, though 13 genera were present in the area. A goodness-of-fit test (G=32.541; d.f.=4; p<<0.0001) followed by Bonferroni confidence intervals procedure showed that hawks preyed selectively on two species. The rodent Calomys tener was more consumed than expected while Akodon sp. was less ingested than would be expected by chance. The three other small mammals (Oligoryzomys sp., Oxymycterus sp. and Gracilinanus sp.) were preyed on in the same proportion as expected. Different vulnerability and availability of small mammals may explain selectivity in the diet of the White-tailed Hawk.

Author here presents the preliminary results and experiences of present activities of feeding places for vultures and necrophagous species in Serbia. Also presented are the general importance and problems of building the feeding places in Serbia and other parts of Balkans.The first two feeding places in Serbia for vultures started their activities in 1989. They were built as one protection measure for rhe last highly endangered colonies of Griffon Vultures in gorges of Tresnjica and Uvac. After several years of activities, very positive effects of these feeding places have been observed. Based on these positive results, the Institute for Protection of Nature of Serbia in 1995 started a special project, intensifying the activities of existing and planning building of new feeding places. Since 1996, these activities were intensified, and some new experimental feeding places were built. During the so far activities of feeding places, general positive effects were noted on protection on Griffon Vultures and other necrophagous species in Serbia. In this period (especially during the last decade) there was some stabilization and noticeable increase in numbers of Griffon Vultures in breeding colonies, which is connected with the building of feeding places and other protection measures.

This report presents preliminary results of research and a register of mites of the order Gamasida recorded in the pellets of birds of prey and owls. Pellets are a specific and, as yet, unexplored mite microhabitat. Research on pellet acarofauna may help to answer numerous questions about the biology of birds of prey and the affinity between mites and birds. Seventeen pellet samples were collected from six bird of prey species, of which the greatest number, seven, came from Haliaeetus albicilla, four from Falco tinnunculus, two each from Bubo bubo and Aquila chrysaetos and one each from Tyto alba and Milvus milvus. The greatest number of mite species (10) was observed in the White-tailed Sea Eagle. A smaller number, only four, were found in the Kestrel's pellets. No mites of the order Gamasida were observed in the pellets of Red Kite and Golden Eagle. Remarkably, in as many as 9 out of 17 collected samples no mites were observed. The fact that the pellet is a specific microhabitat may also be proved by the absence of larval forms of mites and protonymphs.

Caroline Banet-Noach², Manfred Green³ and Annette Sobel⁴

Raptors migrating from country to country and across continents may carry various pathogens in their bodies which may influence the health of wildlife, agriculturally important domestic animals and even humans.

Establishment of baseline information on the health of raptors migrating over Israel is an important tool for good medical diagnosis. Since 2002 we collected samples from 136 birds from 25 species of raptors. The samples were collected from ill or injured raptors brought into the Israeli wildlife hospitals (Safari Ramat Gan and Abu-Cabir Tel Aviv) for medical treatment and birds of prey captured in the field during wild bird surveys.

Cloacal and tracheal swabs were sampled for bacteriology, virology and mycology; blood samples were taken for chemistry and blood parasites.

The main goals of this project were to establish:

• baseline information on the health of wild birds migrating over Israel.
• protocols for collection of information which can be accumulated on computer to form an accessible data base.
• an early warning system using migrating raptors for sudden potential epidemiological problems.
• an international communication network among clinics located along the migratory path to collect and disseminate information on epidemiology.
• tissue bank for collecting and freezing biological samples such as serum, feather parts, ectoparasites and other body parts (from dead animals).

Such an accessible database will enable us to identify and diagnose epidemiological problems and processes of disease transmission along the migratory path.

In Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus nesting on calcareous marshes in SE Poland, during the post-fledging dependency period commmunal roosts are formed only by males. Studies were carried out in an area of the "Rozkosz" reserve near Chelm (51°08' N, 23°37', SE Poland) in two research periods, the first in 1991-1992, repeated from the some observation point in 1998-1999, in both from the beginning of July to mid-August. The observed males roosted exclusively in Saw Sedge Cladium mariscus fields. Significant differences were found in the number of roosting males between the early and late 90's. At the same time the roost area increased. Observation showed also changes in behaviour of between the early and late 90's. The rate of birds involved in pre-roost sitting on the ground decreased. A distinct shortening of the time all males needed to drop on the roost vegetation occurred between the first and second period. Communal defences against foxes in pre-roos context were recorded in both periods. However, in the late 90's the number of social defences and the time of their duration increased. Montagu's Harrier males preferred "bed forms" in moist sites in the late 90's. Utilization of these by Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus and Barn Owls Tyto alba during the day was observed. Certain amount of Montagu's Harriers' "bed forns" were used by Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus in winter.

Several species of globally threatened birds of prey occur in Uzbekistan during winter: Pallas's Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus), White-tailed Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca).

Pallas's Sea Eagle wintering in Uzbekistan is very rare; during winter wetlands surveys in 2001 and 2002 only 5 individuals were recorded on the large reservoirs in the western and central regions in December and January. The White-tailed Sea Eagle is distributed widely during winter; the number recorded during winter 2001-2002 was 237. The eagles were observed on any reservoir with even small flocks of waterfowl, but the most significant numbers were on the large reservoirs with huge accumulations of waterfowl: 97 individuals were recorded in the Aydar-Tuzkan lake system. Over 20 were on each large reservoir. At the end of winter 2001 only 37 eagles were recorded and in April none. The reservoirs of Uzbekistan play an important role for this eagle, and it would be important to develop measures including the establishment of special protected areas and education programmes among local communities, hunters and rangers. The Imperial Eagle is defined as breeding in the northern regions, but its wintering there requires confirmation. In winter 2001-2002 it was recorded in the southern Kyzylkum desert and south of Surkhandarya. Single birds and small family groups were observed in December and January in the remote non-cultivated regions used as pastures. The total number of counted birds was 14, which presupposes that some stay in the republic for the winter in southern regions.

Israel is located at the junction of three continents Europe, Asia and Africa and has importance as one of the global bottlenecks of raptor migration, The entire world population of some species such as the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) and Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes) pass over Israel on autumn and spring migration.

We started to follow systematically raptor migration by radar since 1983 with the ASR-8 radar at Ben Gurion Airport to study the yearly changes of raptor migration and the effects of weather. Since 1997 we enhanced this study using new Russian MRL-5 weather radar, located at the International Center for the Study of Bird Migration at Latrun. Since 2001 a third Israel Air Force Enterprise weather radar is used at the Negev Desert, southern Israel. The network of radars enables us to get a better picture across Israel of raptor migration. Analysis of the radar data will be shown.

In the last four years we developed a digitized system which enables us to get the data on the internet and follow the birds on line in our website (www.birds.org.il) and analyze the influence of changes of weather conditions on migration. A model was developed to predict the changes and it is used by the Israeli Air Force, which gets the data on line through the internet, 7 months per year.

Portugal lacks a monitoring programme for birds of prey and recent data on distribution and population status. Moreover there are few data concerning the non-breeding season. CEAI is developing, in the Portuguese regions south of the river Tejo, a study of the distribution, population status and ecology of birds of prey.

Randomly distributed road transects were employed as the main method in the census. Road transects totalled eabout 2250 km and were carried out four times during January and February (non-breeding period) and four times during March to June (breeding season).

Eight squares were covered by mapping methods and were included, as well as additional observations, in the distribution analysis, to complement the data from transectas, Breeding of rare species was checked with specific search for nest sites in the case of vultures, large eagles, Peregrine Falcon and Lesser Kestrel. Of the 26 species observed, 2022 individual observations were detected during the non-breeding period transects and 1621 during the breeding period transects. Additional observations totalled about 2500.

Distribution maps were designed for all the species occurring in Southern Portugal for both periods. Breeding population numbers were estimated for those species with directed census.

Breedung oaraneters of specialist predators are known to be deeply affected by abundance of their prey. Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus in western France faces strong cyclic variations of its main prey, the common vole Microtus arvalis, both within and between breeding seasons. This relatively simple predator-prey system provides useful data to analyse the relationship between food abundance and sex ratio. We analysed variations in brood sex ratio cumulating 24 years of survey of both the predator (1426 chicks sexed from 451 broods) and its prey within two close harrier populations. Overall sex ratio is very close to parity (0.513). But this apparent equilibrium results in fact from opposite skews in the two populations. At the population level, brood sex ratio of the predator was affected by abundance of prey. Contrary to expectations arising from a dimorphic species, more of the smaller sex (the cheaper ?) was produced when food is abundant. Furthermore, the relationship appears to be non linear: relatively more male offspring were produced both in poor and peak years of the vole cycle and this pattern is surprisingly consistent for both populations. We discuss the possible origins of the bias and why birds exhibit such a heterogeneity in sex ratios across and within species.

Variation in egg size and clutch size was studied in the years 1984-2000 in the population of the Goshawk Accipiter gentilis in Kampinoski National Park, Central Poland. Clutch size averaged 3.5 eggs (range: 1-5) and decreased by 0.016 egg*day-1 (0.263 SD units) with laying date. After accounting for the seasonal decline, the clutch size was related neither to female age (1 yr, 2 yrs, over 2 yrs) nor to the year of the study. Mean egg volume in a clutch was not related to the clutch size, laying date and female age. However, over a 17 year study period, the mean egg volume did decrease significantly (by 0.36% * yr-1) with the year of the study. The temporal trend in mean egg size affected both egg length (-0.15% * yr-1) and egg breadth (-0.12% * yr-1), possibly since the two measurements showed a high correlation (r = 0.57). The decreasing trend in egg size was paralleled by a decrease in breeding density of Goshawks in KNP. At the same time, level of DDT residues in eggs as well as frequency of eggs failing to hatch increased. However, the exact, proximate causes of the observed decline in reproductive investment remain unclear. As the shift in female age composition, laying date and clutch size could be excluded, the decrease in female body size and body condition are the most plausible explanations. Consequently, it is also uncler as to what extent the observed large phenotypic selection differential (0.74 SD units/17 yrs) was acting via environmental or genetic components of variation in egg size.

A long term study of blood parasites of birds of prey began in Israel in 2002, with the following objectives: (i) to identify (to specific level) the haemosporidian parasites (avian malaria) infecting both resident and migrant species; (ii) to examine the relationship between the parasitofauna of resident and migrant birds, and (iii) to examine the relationship between bird condition and infection burden. To obtain meaningful conclusions on host – parasite relationships, in the context of bird migration, it is essential to perform a precise taxonomic analysis, as in the present study, since the definition of species and the limits of host specificity of haemosporidians is still controversial. The birds in the study were brought to the clinics because of traumatic injuries or sickness. So far we have examined blood smears prepared from 73 raptors of 23 species, of these 12 (16.5%) was found positive. The following parasites have already been identified from the following birds (#tentative identification pending revision): Haemoproteus brachiatus: Falco tinnunculus, F. subbuteo; H. elani: Hieraetus pennatus, Buteo buteo; H. nisi: Accipiter nisus; H. noctuae: Tyto alba; H. syrnii#, Bubo bubo, Otus scops, Strix aluco, Tyto alba; H. tinnunculi, Falco tinnunculus, F. subbuteo. Leu Falco columbarius, Circus pigargus, Hieraetus pennatus cocytozoon. danilewski: Bubo bubo, Otus scops; Leucocytozoon toddi: Accipiter nisus; L. toddi #:. Plasmodium subpraecox: Strix aluco, Otus scops P. subpraecox#: F. tinnunculus

In recent years, there has been a surge of interest in the study of complex systems, that is systems in which complex patterns and behaviours arise from simple rules and interactions. In the case of biological complex systems, they can be due to the interactions among many individual objects: from the simple interaction among individual birds can arise several of the complex patterns we observe in the field. Organisations and systems that we observe as the results of individual behaviours can arise without any centralised control (e.g., a leader, a choice, prior knowledge). Frequently, the diffuse centralised mindset leads us to assume that patterns (e.g. assortative mating, dispersion patterns) of complex living systems have been explicitly designed; instead of which, these systems are the product of a huge quantity of simple, basic interactions over time. Data collected for over a century on the Spanish Imperial Eagle enable us to use this model to analyse the raising of complex patterns of mate "selection and dispersion" rules as the result of combinations of simple interactions between individuals, not necessarily including choice or selection processes.

Most studies on raptor diet are based on collected prey remains. This method may underestimate proportions of small prey items and overestimate proportions of large prey; this flaw was found in studies that employed direct observations at the nest and other methods to study diet. Technical methods and direct observations are usually associated with high disturbance and are sometimes dangerous for nestlings. Modern video recording techniques provide more precise diet data and make possible any other observations of the nest with minimised disturbance. During the summer of 2002 we conducted a pilot study of the diet of the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and the Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) with a set of digital video surveillance equipment. The capacity of the recorder's hard disk is enough for about 46 hrs non-stop recording in the time-lapse mode (2-3 frames per second). Although initially setting up the equipment takes 30-50 min, further disturbance is minimal. Recordings allowed us to observe prey deliveries and their schedule. We were also able to identify most of the prey items. We did not notice any negative effect of the camera's presence in the immediate vicinity of the nest on the behaviour of young or adult birds. Such equipment can be used also for detailed observations of nestling and adult behaviour at the nest with exact time reference.

Tel: + 358-8-553-1264 • Fax: + 358-8-553-1061 • Email: risto.tornberg@oulu.fi

Vitali Reif¹, Risto Tornberg¹, Sven Jungell², Sakari Mykrä³ (Oral)

The reliable evaluation of predators' impact on small game is a topical task in reconciling game management and raptor conservation. We analyzed the predation impact of the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and the Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) on the forest grouse species: the Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), the Black Grouse (Tetrao tetrix) and the Hazel Grouse (Bonasa bonasia), in western Finland. The study area is situated in the southern boreal zone and consists of coniferous–dominated forest mixed with agricultural fields. The analysis was based on multiannual data of the diet composition of the raptors, their nesting performance and reproductive success, information on raptor consumption rate and annual data on grouse species density as well as the proportion of juveniles among them. The total impact of these two raptors on all the grouse species populations for 1985-92 averaged about 15%, where ca. 2/3 was attributed to the Goshawk. The Hazel Grouse suffered the heaviest impact (ca. 10%). The impact value fluctuated largely among the years, with up to 10-fold amplitude.

Of the 15 species of the Order Falconiformes reported in Cuba, one endemic species, Gundlach's Hawk (Accipiter gundlachi) and two endemic subspecies, the Hook-billed Kite (Chondrohierax uncinatus) and the Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus) are threatened. Five of the ten permanent resident raptors have restricted distribution. Despite Cuba's strategic geographical position, there are no data on the migratory movements along and through Cuba of seven of the nine migratory raptors, and also no studies on their wintering abundance and ecology. Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) reach Cuba at its north-central part, flying then east to easternmost Cuba, while Swallow-tailed Kites (Elanoides forficatus) mostly fly from the Florida peninsula to the Yucatan peninsula through the western part of Cuba, although there is some movement of this species to eastern Cuba, either to wintering grounds in easternmost Cuba or to Hispaniola and Jamaica. Although protected by Cuban law, raptors are threatened above all by illegal hunting and poorly planned and/or illegal logging. There is an urgent need of educational programmes involving raptors as flagships for accomplishing the conservation issue.

Observing hunting Northern Goshawks in natural habitats is extremely difficult due to the species' secretive foraging behaviour. Recently, Goshawks colonized the city of Hamburg, Germany. Pairs nest in public parks and private gardens, and are remarkably tolerant towards human disturbance. Favourable conditions iallowed us to collect a comparatively large sample of chance observations. No kill was observed for the adult male of an urban breeding pair (n = 28 hunts). For three hunts, however, a kill out of sight was very likely, giving an estimated success rate of 11%. The male regularly used a power-line post for perch-hunting (70%). In hunts observed in a public park (n = 34), 56% were stoops well above the trees, and two attacks were successful (6%). Similarly, 84% of all hunting flights in a residential area (n = 61 were flown at heights between 30-150 m. In 82% of these cases, attacks were launched at flying feral pigeons. Our results indicate that urban Goshawks regularly use techniques other than the sit-and-wait hunting predominantly shown by their rural counterparts. Unfortunately, we cannot assess the importance of individual hunting techniques, as our sample is probably biased towards conspicuous hunts occurring out of cover. This view is supported by results from an extensive radio-monitoring study in Hamburg (n = 295 hunts for 3 tagged males).

In the shrubby tundra of the Yamal peninsula (Russia) 3-4 year cycles of small rodents were observed. In 1999-2002 we investigated the prey selectivity of the Rough-legged Buzzard in relation to the Middendorf vole (Microtus middendorffii) during different phases of their population cycles. In the peak phase, few voles born in that year started to reproduce. The body mass of mature and immature voles was significantly different. At the same time, more than 60% of the Buzzard's diet constituted voles with body mass 25-40g, i.e. fully mature voles born in that year. At the crash phase, thw most considerable impact of Buzzards on vole populations lasted for only a few weeks after arrival. After that, most buzzards moved out from shrubby tundra. In the spring of the year of crash, the proportion of voles with body mass vekow 20g was less than 10% of the Buzzaeds' diet. At the same time, the body mass of immature female voles, which are responsible for summer increase in population density, did not exceed 20g. We concluded that Rough-legged Buzzards can to be one of the causes of vole population dynamics: in the peak phase they damped down the rate of population density increase, while in the crash phase they did not restrict it.

All information on the present status of the Long-legged Buzzard's distribution and number in Ukraine has been summarized in a paper by A. Grrinchenko. According to this, the population in Ukraine doesn't exceed 30-40 pairs.

While watching birds of prey in central Ukraine from May to September 2001 and 2002, we obtained data which update the species' present status. The birds were observed within steppe/forest-steppe regions between the Dnieper and Southern Bug rivers. During these periods we saw 53 occurrences in the nesting season, 45 of which can be regarded as regional breeding pairs. For example, in the basin of the Ingul / Ingulets rivers 60 pairs are presumed to nest. This is far more than the figure given by Grinchenko for the whole of Ukraine.

Taking into account the fact that the species' Ukraine breeding range is within forest-steppe/steppe regions and less than 20% of this area was visited, we have a right to assume that this species' true number is not less than 150 breeding pairs, which greatly differs from the data given in the above-mentioned paper.

In European Russia 13 species of owls are breeding. The Eagle Owl, Long-Eared Owl, Tawny Owl and Short-Eared Owl are most widespread. The remaining species have more restricted ranges, some confined to boreal forests: Tengmalm`s Owl, Ural Owl, Hawk Owl, Pygmy Owl and Great Grey Owl,others to southern forest/steppe and mountain landscapes: Little Owl and Scops Owl. Most numerous are Long-Eared Owl (150 000-350 000 bp), Tengmalm`s Owl (69 500-250 500 bp), Short-Eared Owl (60 000-200 000 bp) and Scops Owl (87 000-200 000 bp). The Barn Owl in Russia is at the north-east limit of its range, and does not exceed 50 bp. The current number of the Eagle Owl is estimated at 3 100-5 500 bp. The Hawk Owl (6 500-20 000 bp) and Great Grey Owl (1 700-4 400 bp) are typical taiga species with a restricted distribution. The next three species have a mean number of: Tawny Owl (37 500-102 000 bp), Ural Owl (30 150-76 000 bp) and Little Owl (11 500-103 300 bp).

A positive trend is marked in the Long-Eared Owl, with a tendency to synanthropization. An increase and expansion south and south-east of the Ural Owl and Great Grey Owl are observed. The Tawny Owl population is stable; however in regions where there is an increase of the Ural Owl, its number has decreased considerably. The minor increase or, at least, stable situation is characteristic of the Eagle Owl. Probably this species has adapted to anthropogenic pressure. In the Scops Owl an increase and some expansion of range east and north-east is marked. A decline of the Little Owl in all regions is noted. Information is insufficient to gauge trends in Pygmy Owl and Hawk Owl

Different species have quite different signals for honest advertising at the time of pair formation, in order to transfer information about their genetic quality and this behaviour or phenotypic cues must be difficult to fake. Montagu's Harrier observed by me performed special kinds of aerial displays known as sky-dancing. Sky-dancing is difficult to fake because males in good condition display more frequently then males in poor condition. Similary, courtship feeding is important for pair formation because better fed females start egg laying earlier (Wiacek 1997).

This field study was performed in eastern Poland in the Chelm marshes on an indyvidually marked population of Montagu's Harrier in two nature reserves "Bagno Serebryskie" and "Roskosz"(1992-95). The intensively displaying males were chosen first by females (r=0.68, p<0.01, n=20). The nestlings of all displaying males were observed in the later stages of the breeding cycles. My data showed that feathers: I and V grew faster in young from nests of better displaying males (I: r =0.78, p<0.001, n=27; V: r =0.92, p<0.001, n=27). My data showed that sky-dancing was the most important criterion of mate choice in this species. Males in good condition were chosen by females first and their young fledge earlier. Therefore sky-dancing is honest information to the female about a male's condition and his genetic quality.

The Lesser Spotted Eagle is a relatively common species in forested hilly areas of Romania. We evaluated this pattern with distribution data collected in a hilly area of Central Transylvania. We selected three habitat variables at breeding territory scale (forest and settlement coverage and main-road length) that would allow us to evaluate the prediction that eagles tend to use a certain type of habitat in which their abundance is maximum in a certain percentage of forest coverage which is negatively correlated with the coverage of settlements and main-roads length. We also predicted that the distance between breeding territories is positively correlated with the coverage of settlements and main-roads and negatively with the forest coverage. We found that the variance of all selected habitat parameters supports our abundance prediction and also suggests that forest and settlement coverage

support distance predictions in the studied area. No correlation was found with the main-roads length. These habitat structures probably have a major effect on the species' distribution only if they are combined with each other. To determine more exactly habitat preference, other variables such as forest structure should be investigated in the future.

© 2003 CTM